Aztecs, known as Culhua-Mexica by their own self-designation, were a Nahuatl-speaking people who wielded authority over a vast empire in present-day Mexico's central and southern regions during the 15th and early 16th centuries. The etymology of the term "Aztec" can be traced back to Aztlán, a notion that encompasses notions of a "White Land," "Land of White Herons," or "Place of Herons," alluding to their supposed origins in northwestern Mexico. They were alternatively referred to as the Tenochca, deriving from their eponymous ancestor Tenoch and the Mexica, possibly derived from Metzliapán ("Moon Lake"), which served as the mystical name for Lake Texcoco. Their grand city, Tenochtitlán, was founded on an island in Lake Texcoco within the Valley of Mexico. The name Mexica also came to be associated with the city that succeeded the Aztec capital and the surrounding valley, later encompassing the entirety of the Mexican nation. The Aztecs identified themselves as Culhua-Mexica, forging a connection with Colhuacán, the hub of the most sophisticated populace in the Valley of Mexico.
Origins of the Aztec People The precise origin of the Aztec people remains uncertain. Yet, elements within their own folklore suggest that they initially constituted a tribe of hunters and gatherers residing in the northern Mexican plateau before migrating to Mesoamerica, perhaps around the 12th century CE. The legendary Aztlán might have served as a narrative construct rather than a real place. It is plausible that their southward migration was part of a larger demographic movement that followed or possibly contributed to, the decline of the highly developed Toltec civilization centred in central Mexico and its capital, Tula, renowned for its impressive urban complex, featuring pyramids, temples, public edifices, and statuary.
At the dawn of the 12th century, catastrophe struck the Toltec civilization, with Tula succumbing to attack and destruction, along with other significant Toltec centres. Taking advantage of the situation, various tribes of hunters and gatherers, including a faction of Chichimec led by Xólotl, capitalized on the turmoil and embarked on a journey from the arid plateau of northern Mexico to the fertile and densely populated central zone. Xólotl's Chichimec faction joined forces with the remnants of the Toltecs, resulting in a period of relative tranquillity and cultural advancement in the Valley of Mexico. During this time, the Aztecs, according to legend, had been wandering in search of a permanent settlement. They eventually established a temporary abode near the ruins of Tula, where they enhanced their agricultural techniques and acquired other technological knowledge.
However, their sojourn in Tula was transitory. Aztec mythology recounts that the deity Huitzilopochtli instructed them to resume their quest for a permanent homeland, whose location would be unveiled through the manifestation of an eagle perched atop a nopal cactus, clutching a serpent in its beak (a symbol enshrined on Mexico's national flag). After a long pilgrimage, the Aztecs arrived 1325 at a small island in Lake Texcoco. According to the account, older community members discerned the presence of the eagle, cactus, and serpent, prompting the construction of a temple. Around this sacred edifice, the first dwellings emerged on the islands of Lake Texcoco, heralding the birth of the formidable city of Tenochtitlán.
The Ascendancy of the Aztec Empire: From Alliances to Conquest
During the reign of Itzcóatl (1428-1440), Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the Aztecs, forged alliances with neighbouring states such as Texcoco and Tlacopan, thus establishing its dominance in central Mexico. Through commercial ventures and military conquests, Tenochtitlán expanded its control to encompass an empire comprising 400 to 500 smaller states by 1519. This vast territory extended over approximately 80,000 square miles (207,200 square km) and was inhabited by an estimated 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 people. Tenochtitlán grew to cover an area exceeding 5 square miles (13 square km) and housed more than 140,000 inhabitants, constituting the most densely populated settlement ever achieved by a Mesoamerican civilization. The Aztec empire's grandeur stood alongside the mighty Incan empire of Peru, demonstrating a level of cultural brilliance akin to other remarkable ancient civilizations of the Americas and the Old World.
The Spanish Conquest: Disruption and Collapse The Aztec empire continued to expand, and its society continued to evolve until the arrival of Spanish explorers in 1519 abruptly halted its progress. Hernán Cortés led approximately 500 European soldiers into central Mexico, eventually capturing Montezuma II, the ninth Aztec emperor (reigned 1502-1520), who died in Spanish custody. Several factors contributed to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire. Initially, Montezuma harboured suspicions that Cortés was a deity returning to the Aztecs. However, Cortés's leadership skills and his force's possession of superior weaponry (crossbows, muskets, steel swords, and body armour), horses, and trained war dogs played a significant role in the conquest.
Moreover, the devastating impact of European diseases, of which the Aztecs had no immunity, further weakened their resistance. Additionally, the Spanish exploited the animosity harboured by tribes previously subjugated by the Aztecs, who eagerly joined the Spanish invasion. The collaboration of thousands of Native American warriors proved crucial to the ultimate success of the Spanish campaign, which would likely have failed without their participation.
Despite the valiant efforts of Montezuma's successors, Cuitláhuac and Cuauhtémoc, to resist Cortés and his forces, they could not repel the Spanish onslaught. After a brutal two-year campaign, on August 13, 1521, the Spanish seized control of Tenochtitlán, marking the demise of the Aztec empire.
Aztec Agriculture:
The Foundation of Prosperity The Aztec civilization's ability to establish a powerful state and eventually an empire rested upon their unique agricultural system, renowned for its high productivity. Intensive cultivation techniques were employed, utilizing all available land, while intricate irrigation systems and innovative agricultural practices, such as chinampas ("floating gardens"), played a crucial role. Chinampas comprised raised fields created by piling fertile soil from lake bottoms into ridges interspersed with ditches or canals. The Valley of Mexico's favourable climate and abundant water supply facilitated multiple harvests annually from the chinampas. Furthermore, the interconnected system of lakes, including Texcoco, Chalco, Xochimilco, Xaltoca, and Zumpango, along with artificially constructed canals, enhanced the strategic significance of the Valley of Mexico. This intricate water network provided extensive transportation options and contributed to the valley's early economic and political unification.
Aztec Sociopolitical Organization: Complexity and Debate
The sociopolitical organization of the Aztec empire remains a subject of scholarly discourse, with anthropologists presenting divergent viewpoints on its nature. Some scholars highlight the existence of calpulli, which were kin-based units established in Tenochtitlán, as evidence of an egalitarian structure. Conversely, undeniable evidence of social stratification leads others to argue for the presence of a hierarchical society. Although a hereditary nobility suggests a "feudal" nature, it is important to note that the Aztec monarch's rule was more absolute, distinguishing it from the feudal systems of the Old World. Records from the reign of Montezuma II reveal a provincially organized empire, with tribute payments tied to regional productivity. A vast political, military, and religious bureaucracy was developed, encompassing positions such as governors, tax collectors, courts of justice, military garrisons, and civil offices responsible for mail and messenger services.
Aztec Religion: Syncretism and Rituals
Aztec religion exhibited syncretism, incorporating elements from various Mesoamerican cultures. Fundamentally, it shared cosmological beliefs with earlier civilizations like the Maya, including the notion that the present earth represented the final creation in a series and occupied a position between 13 heavens and 9 underworlds. Central to the Aztec pantheon were deities such as Huitzilopochtli, the god of war; Tonatiuh, the god of the sun; Tlaloc, the god of rain; and Quetzalcóatl, the Feathered Serpent, a deity and cultural hero. The practice of human sacrifice, particularly offering a victim's heart to Tonatiuh, was prevalent alongside bloodletting rituals. As "people of the sun," the Aztecs believed they needed to nourish Huitzilopochtli with human blood to ensure human existence. From an ideological perspective, the war represented a religious obligation that provided captives for sacrifice to the sun god. However, it is essential to recognize that Aztec warfare also served practical purposes beyond the religious sphere. As their power grew, the Aztecs ritually executed prisoners from various regions of present-day Mexico in Tenochtitlán.
Inextricably linked to Aztec religion was the calendar, which served as the framework for elaborate rituals and ceremonies conducted by a large professional priesthood. Each temple and deity had its specific order of priests. Many of these ceremonies were public spectacles in which the populace played the role of spectators. Common elements in these ceremonies included ritual ablutions to prepare the priests for contact, offerings and sacrifices to appease the gods, and theatrical performances depicting myths through dances, songs, and professional actors.
Nahuatl: The Aztec Language
The language spoken by the Aztecs was Nahuatl, which belonged to the Uto-Aztecan linguistic family. This language exerted influence across a vast region, extending as far north as the Yellowstone River and south as Panama during the early European explorations of America. Nahuatl, the most significant of the Uto-Aztecan languages, served as the language of communication for the Aztec and Toltec civilizations. Following the Aztecs' rise to political prominence, Nahuatl became the lingua franca across an area nearly as extensive as present-day Mexico. A substantial body of Nahuatl literature produced by the Aztecs has survived from the 16th century. It was transcribed using an orthography introduced by Spanish priests based on the Spanish writing system. Classical Nahuatl, used in the 16th century, employed 15 consonants and four long and short vowels. Notably, it featured the unique tl sound, represented as a single consonant, and used the glottal stop.
